Apr 16, 202110 min read

AP English Language and Composition

What's in this Study Guide:

Annotation guidelines
Brainstorming and Writing an essay
Logic
Satire
Argument

What to Annotate

LIDDS (determines Tone - check B) SPACECAT for more details)
1. Language
  1. What is the intended effect of the language?
  2. What is the level of language? ( ie informal v formal)
  3. What is the limit of language? (ie how vulgar, how complex)
2. Imagery
  1. Audio
  2. Visual
  3. Gustatory
  4. Tactile
  5. Olfactory
3. Diction
  1. A microscopic look at the words/phrases in a piece
4. Details
  1. Quotes, allusions, other parts of the composition
5. Structure
  1. How long are the sentences?
  2. How long are the paragraphs?
  3. How varied are the sentences/paragraphs?
SPACECAT (new and ‘improved’ SOAPSTone)
1. Speaker
  1. Who is this speaker - is he/she formally educated and/or experienced; is he/she agreeing or disagreeing; etc
2. Purpose
  1. What point is trying to be made? What is the intended effect of this piece on a reader?
3. Audience
  1. Who is this aimed towards? (age, gender, race, economic class, etc)
4. Context
  1. What is happening around the topic of the piece?
5. Exigence
  1. Why is this written? What situation was this written for?
6. Choices
  1. What is included? What is excluded? Why is a specific part chosen to be written one way rather than another?
7. Appeals
  1. Ethos, pathos, logos
8. Tone
  1. Know the levels of tone
    1. Author’s attitude towards the reader
    2. Author’s attitude towards the subject
    3. Attitude expressed within a work (ie a character’s viewpoint)
  2. Use an original tone word!!! Don’t be vague.
    1. Check out my set: https://quizlet.com/_8lf9iy?x=1jqt&i=121nb7
  3. Note how tone is determined (use LIDDS as stated above)
    1. How does the tone help/hurt the author’s intentions?
    2. Did the author effectively create/manage the tone?
  4. Indicators of tone shifts
    1. Key words: However, although, unlike, but
    2. Punctuation: colon, dashes
    3. Divisions (ie paragraph breaks, sentence breaks, etc)
    4. Changes (ie juxtaposition, irony)
Voice
1. Tone
2. Imagery
3. Diction
4. Details
5. Syntax
  1. Length of sentences (Telegraphic, short, medium, long and involved)
  2. Function of sentences (declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory)
  3. Structure of sentences (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex)
  4. Balance of sentences (Loose, Periodic, Balanced)
  5. Order of sentences (natural, inverted, split)
  6. Parallelism / repetition (anaphora, epistrophe)
Rhetorical Modes
1. Definition: method of developing and structuring an essay or point
2. 4 overarching modes:
  1. Narration
  2. Description
  3. Argumentation
  4. Exposition
3. 6 specific modes (CCCPEE)
  1. Compare + contrast
  2. Classification
  3. Cause and effect
  4. Process Analysis
  5. Example / analogy
  6. Extended Definition
The author’s thesis in MY own words
1. Paraphrase! (Don’t you DARE summarize)
2. Paraphrasing is using the same number (or even more) of words to restate an idea with All its nuances, not just the overarching ones.
3. Refer to How to Write an Essay for more ~
4. Purpose / Theme!
My reactions!
1. When the author discussed ___, I thought of -subject- when I ___
2. I agree when author pointed out ___ because ___
3. Example of ____ showed me that ___
4. Comment about ____ made me realize that ____
5. This article can help me better read / write / analyze because ___
6. Anything else.
The Chart
1. Evaluates the strength of the author’s argument

Approaching an Essay

How to Brainstorm:
1. Freewriting (ideas > quality; fine tuning comes in later)
2. Breaking down to levels (find general topic, then subtopics)
3. Listing/bulleting (ya see I’m doing an excellent job of this ;) )
4. 3 perspectives (describe, trace, then map the topic)
5. Cubing (describe, compare, associate, analyze, apply, argue for/against)
6. Clustering / Mapping / Webbing (connecting ideas using lines with the main topic in the center of the page)
7. Relationship between the parts (find out how words of topic relate to each other)
8. Journalistic questions (like an interview!)
9. Thinking outside the box (dwdw i found this super unhelpful too. Like if i had that brain then why brainstorm?)
10. Use charts and shapes
11. Find out purpose and audience
12. Use dictionaries, thesauruses, and encyclopedias
How to outline
Introduction

--opening line (complete sentence) [refer below on a tutorial of how to write one]

--thesis (complete sentence)

________(insert name of topic/rhetorical strategy/argument)

--topic sentence

--example and how it connects to meaning and purpose and effect on reader (just thoughts)

Repeat II with another topic
Repeat III with another topic (do as many of these as needed)
Conclusion

--restated ( recast thesis) (complete sentence)

--closing line (complete sentence)

How to approach a prompt:
1. For Quotation-based prompts: ALWAYS QUALIFY (revise or add to the original thesis - specify it)
  1. Agreeing is boring, disagreeing is arrogant. So qualify, and be original and unique!
2. For Rhetorical analysis prompts, make sure you answer the two questions in the thesis:
  1. What is the author’s purpose, as specific and as precise as you can?
  2. What rhetorical choices most notably help the author?

How to Write Essays

Writing Introductions
1. Opening Lines
  1. Use “Tags” from the given quote to tell you the topic of the opening line.
    1. i.e. for “Don’t give up,” possible tags are persistence, determination, etc.
  2. Strategies of how to write opening lines:
    1. Quotation
      1. NOTE: Do not start an essay with a quotation if the essay is based on a quotation.
      2. Good example: Euripides asserted that, “A bad beginning is a bad ending.”
    2. Interesting Fact / Statistic
      1. Good Example: AP graders say that 90% of essays begin the same way.
      2. Bad Example: Throughout history, teachers attempted to convey the importance of introductions.
      3. Another Bad Example: Most essays begin with what is known as an intro.
      4. Too vague, too boring, too ‘duh’
      5. Yet Another Bad Example: Dictionary defines an introduction as an opening to a piece of writing.
      6. Must I really explain this? It’s just...bad. Ew.
    3. Anecdote
      1. Good Example: “Duh opening” - as soon as I read those words, I knew I didn’t receive a good score.
    4. Strong Opinion
      1. Good Example: English teachers can determine if a student can write well from the first line.
      2. Bad Example: I will introduce to you the topic of introductions.
      3. Generic, direct, boring as henk.
    5. Rhetorical Question
      1. Good Example: Why do students continue to submit essays without a thoughtful opening?
      2. Specify who the question is for, make the answer to the question not-so-obvious.
      3. Bad Example: Have you ever started an essay with an intro? Of course you have!
      4. Irritating af. Too obvious.
    6. Well-Crafted Sentence (basically any stylistic device such as metaphor, simile, loose/periodic sentences, parallelism, etc.)
      1. NOTE: Using this strategy (or any of the others, for that matter) does NOT guarantee a good opening.
      2. Good Example: An essay starting with a good introduction is just as pleasing as ice cream on a summer’s day.
2. The rest of the intro
  1. FOR ORIGINAL ARGUMENT -- QUOTATION:
    1. Transition to author, quote, and paraphrase.
      1. Check the embedding section for how to do this for quotation prompts.
    2. Explain the Quotation / Proposal.
    3. Statement of Validity
      1. An agreement to a certain extent with what the author is saying, just to make sure we do not come off as “dang the person who said this was such an idiotic fool.”
      2. Make sure this statement is a SEPARATE sentence, otherwise it’ll sound sarcastic.
  2. FOR RHETORICAL ANALYSIS ESSAYS
    1. Connect the introduction sentence into the argument of the article.
  3. FOR ORIGINAL ARGUMENT -- PROPOSAL
    1. Transition thesis to the context of the issue; what’s the problem that needs to be solved? How is the proposal trying to solve the issue?
3. Transition to your thesis.
  1. For original argument - quotation essays:
    1. Qualification thesis: The author’s thesis, revised to fit your point better.
      1. i.e. if the quote is “Donuts are delicious,” then your qualification thesis can be, “Donuts are delicious when eaten warm, fresh from Bosa Donuts.”
      2. Qualifications should agree with the author to an extent, but narrow down the argument. After all, this should be an original essay.
  2. For rhetorical analysis essays:
    1. What is the author’s purpose, as specific and as precise as you can? What rhetorical choices most notably help the author?
  3. For original argument - proposal essays:
    1. Position and broad reasoning / set up what the readers need to know on the topic
Body Paragraphs:
1. For Original Argument - Quotation essays:
  1. Each paragraph should have a specific idea / example related to the prompt to prove the thesis
2. For Rhetorical Analysis essays (two options):
  1. Subtopic structure: Example by example (like lit last year; one device per paragraph)
  2. Explication structure: go line-by-line down the excerpt, naming the devices chronologically from beginning to end.
3. For Original Argument - Proposal essays:
  1. Address the opposing arguments first; show why they are a valid side to take
  2. Talk about your own argument; make sure readers know why your side is more preferable
Conclusions
1. Restated thesis
2. Should broaden the impact of this - go from narrow (the body paragraphs) to broad (the closing)
3. Closing line = bridge from reading to the real world.
4. Here are some readings from our class:
  1. https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/ending-essay-conclusions
  2. https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/conclusions/
Write with Style (what makes a piece or author’s writing unique)
1. LIDDS
2. Tone
3. Topic

Logic

Two Types of Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
- Reasoning from particular facts or ideas to a general rule or law.
  - Small specifics -> bigger concepts
Deductive Reasoning
- Use general ideas to go into specifics.
  - Big concept -> smaller specifics

Fallacies!

Ad Hominem: attacking a person, not an argument
1. Ex: Prison reform is great until you realize the man proposing it is an ex-convict.
Ad Misericordiam: refusing to answer the question and uses emotive responses instead
1. Ex: Dear Harvard, my family of 19 is starving, and no one gave us a chance to succeed. Please select me for admission.
Arguing in a Circle / Begging the Question / Circular Argument / Petito Principi: assumes premise from conclusion and conclusion from premise
1. Ex: That cake is not healthy because it’s not good for you.
Bandwagon: implies something is right since everyone does it
1. Ex: buying my drugs isn’t bad - hundreds of people do it and have full faith in me.
Card Stacking: states only some facts and ignores opposing evidence
1. Ex: Trump says he saved millions of lives and ignores the thousands that have died.
Contradictory Premises: statements are inherently contradicting each other
1. Ex: God exists, has infinite power, and is good. It is morally wrong to not prevent suffering when possible. There are babies on Earth suffering right now.
Either-or Fallacy: one Or the other; both cannot exist at the same time
1. Ex. either get good grades or end up homeless
False Analogy: comparison where two things are assumed to be alike enough to compare
1. Ex: students should use textbooks during tests since Doctors can use x-rays for procedures.
False or Irrelevant Authority: the source is not a reliable person in the mentioned field
1. Ex: JK Rowling starts a cooking show with very little experience.
False Cause / Causal / Post hoc, Post hoc ergo propter hoc: chronology equates to cause-effect
1. Ex. I woke up late on September 11, and when I got to work, the twin towers collapsed. I must be angering the gods.
Hasty Generalization: broad conclusion from insufficient evidence (stereotyping)
1. Ex: Everyone at Harvard is either a Science Olympiad medalist, a USAMO finalist, an Olympic team member, or white and rich.
Hypothesis Contrary to Fact: Someone implies that something wouldn’t happen without proof
1. Ex: without Hitler, the Holocaust wouldn’t have happened.
Non-Sequitur: provides evidence irrelevant to the argument
1. Ex: Abigail is good at baking, so she should be NHS president.
Poisoning the Well / post hoc: making the opponent seem untrustworthy before the actual argument
1. Ex: Don’t believe my opponent because he is a misogynistic, close-minded freak.
2. Subset of Ad Hominem
Red Herring / Ignoring the Question: sidetracks and issue with an unrelated one
1. Ex: don’t worry about climate change when there are families without homes!
Slippery Slope: assumes extreme negative effects
1. Ex: if you close down the libraries, no kid from Arizona will be literate in 20 years!
Straw Man: creates untrue images in order to make deciding ‘easier’
1. Ex: Ms. V loves oppressing students by encouraging a new uniform policy.
Sweeping Generalization / dictosimplicitor:
1. Ex: Everyone should exercise because exercise is good for you.

Logical arguments

Syllogisms: representation of deductive arguments with 3 parts (major premise, minor premise, conclusion)
- Example:
  - Major premise: flowers need sunlight
  - Minor premise: roses are flowers
  - Conclusion: roses need sunlight
Enthymemes: informal method of reasoning typical of rhetorical discourse. Defined as “truncated syllogism” since either major/minor premise found in that more formal method of reasoning is left implied. Typically a conclusion with a reason.
- Example :
  - Premise: I want only the best.
  - Conclusion: that’s why I always have the newest model.
    - Notice how there is an implied secondary premise. In this case, it is ~ the best models are the newest models.

Claims!

Definition: An arguable sentence that asserts that something is true, even though there is no definite proof.
Types:
1. Fact claim: makes a quantifiable assertion; an argument about a measurable topic
2. Value claim: makes a qualifiable assertion; an argument about a moral, aesthetic, or philosophical topic
3. Policy claim: makes an assertion about a course of action ther reader should take; an argument about an actionable topic

Satire

Definition: a literary genre that uses irony and wit to expose humanity’s vices and foibles, giving impetus to a change or reform through ridicule.
Irony : a contradiction or incongruity between appearance or expectation or reality
1. Situational : expectation vs reality
2. Dramatic: characters are clueless, audience knows
3. Verbal: what is stated is opposite of what is meant
  1. Sarcasm: subset of verbal irony; speech meant to hurt, intentional derision
Satirical Techniques
1. Types / subsets of Irony (look above)
2. Epithet: an adjective/phrase added to noun/person to accentuate certain characteristics
  1. Example: Catherine the Great
  2. Example: Ivan the Terrible
3. Parody: an imitation of literary work, genre, or author’s style for comic effect to criticize that work, author, genre, or style
4. Invective: harsh, abusive language
5. Hyperbole: figure of speech of intentional, extreme exaggeration
6. Understatement: figure of speech intentionally representing something as less important than it actually is.
7. Juxtaposition: placing 2 opposite things next to each other in order to emphasize their differences, reveal similarities, or explore a unique relationship between the two. Challenges readers to reconsider/discover elements typically apart when grouped together
8. Visual: caricatures, labels, symbols
Satire Types
1. Horatian
  1. Style: gentle mockery, truth with a smile, light humor
  2. Target (thing being criticized; NOT the intended audience): broad audience, may be all of humanity
  3. Topic: long-lasting, universal
2. Juvenalian
  1. Style: harsh, bitter mockery; condescending
  2. Target: narrow group of people (about a room’s worth of people; can be as narrow as one person)
  3. Topic: temporary, current

Argument

A) Two types of Argument:

B) What to consider in an argument:

Stakeholders (who is affected by the proposal? )
1. Pros and cons
Heads of Purpose (categories to divide the argumentation into):
1. Apthonius’s Heads of Purpose: Clarity, Plausibility, Possibility, Consistency, Propriety, Expediency, Legality, Justice, Honor
2. Other Heads of Purpose: Economic, Pragmatic, Ethical, Logical, Political, Social, Legal

C) Planning

a. iteration

Vocab

Refresher from last year : https://quizlet.com/_7x8gt1?x=1jqt&i=121nb7
Allusions
1. A reference to another work
2. Examples (taken from Classical Allusions Project)
  1. Apple of Discord: invoking negative feelings; causing trouble
  2. Bread and Circuses: appeases / distracts from real problems
  3. Cerberus: bribery to stop being bad / annoying
  4. Chimaera: something wished for but impossible to receive
  5. Cloud Cuckoo Land: a utopia; a perfect imaginary land
  6. Crossing the Rubicon: forced between two unfavorable options
  7. Deus Ex Machina: outside miraculous life saving force
  8. Elysian Fields: heaven, paradise
  9. Gordian Knot: a complex problem requires a creative solution
  10. Halcyon Days: calmer, nostalgic days
  11. Letha: loss of memory; oblivion
  12. Nine Muses: inspiration, creativity
  13. Pyrrhic Victory: both sides lose since they each lost so much
  14. Procrustean Bed: a situation which people are forced into
  15. Rich as Croesus: enamored by his wealth → everything he had was destroyed
  16. Scylla + Charybdis: choosing between two unpleasant choices
  17. Siren Song: appeal option; can be deceptive or dangerous
  18. Swan Song: foreshadows death / retirement
  19. Sword of Damocles: a pleasure that can stop at any second
  20. To Sow Dragon’s Teeth: conflict arising unexpectedly; takes time to form
  21. Under the Aegis: under the shelter of someone else
Anecdote
1. short story told by people/a person, illustrates a point, is true or at least is believed to be true
Embedding Quotes
1. Leaving them un-embedded isn’t your writing - it’s neglect.
2. Descriptive verbs for embedding:
  1. Alleges, asserts, boasts, demands, discloses, exclaiming, informs, pleads, proclaims, replies, reveals, urges, vows, warns
3. Place quotes either at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence, but never leave it alone.
Loose or cumulative sentence
1. Main or independent clause comes first, followed by grammatical units (phrases and dependent clauses)
Periodic sentence
1. Main clause at the end of sentence with additional grammatical units before this
Parallel structure
1. When listing or comparing, use either noun+noun, prepositional phrase + prepositional phrase, gerund + gerund, verb + verb, infinitive + infinitive, dependent clause + dependent clause, or any Object Z + same Object Z. But don’t even TRY doing infinitive + gerund or any weird combos like that.
2. Stray away from Faulty Parallelism. Please.
3. 2 or more ideas linked with coordinating/correlative conjunction